The Discrimination of Nonnative Speakers in the Workplace Essay Example for Free

The Discrimination of Nonnative Speakers in the Workplace Essay Maria, an employee of Latino decent feels she was unfairly eliminated for a promotion because of her distinct accent; she has filed a complaint alleging the company has engaged in discriminatory practices. Evaluation Maria is a good employee but is often loud and aggressive in her approach to co-workers and supervisors. The employee record shows there were problems with tardiness and attendance and twice supervisors for these infractions have counseled her. Maria has pointed out that she is the only Latino, person of color and woman in her department and states a supervisor stated she was not promoted because he feared clients would have trouble understanding her accent. Maria has been with the company for ten years and in her current position for seven. She holds a graduate degree and claims her low evaluations reflect a built in bias by her white male supervisors. Despite the fact that Alex, who too holds a graduate degree, has less time with the company, he had better performance evaluations than Maria and was offered the promotion. The company is admitting that Maria’s accent was a factor in their decision but claim it they did not discriminate against Maria by not offering her the promotion related to her accent alone. The company also states that clear communication was an essential component of the job in question, but was it the only component needed. What does Maria do well that could have superseded this essential component? The company may have thought they were not discriminating against Maria but by acknowledging and then stating she was not being promoted solely based on the trouble of understanding her accent, the company has indeed engaged in discriminatory practices and I feel Maria may have a valid argument, and case against her employer.   Latinos in America Despite several decades of legislation and policies designed to eliminate unfair treatment, unfortunately individual and institutional discrimination still exist today (Pavalko, Mossakowski, Hamilton, 2013, p. 27-28). The traditional focus of psychological research on prejudice and discrimination has been on black-white relations while research on the prejudice and discrimination of Latinos has been astonishingly rare (Dovidio, Gluszek, John, Ditlmann, Lagunes, 2010, p.60). A review of articles on discrimination and prejudice in three of the leading social psychology journals revealed that sixty-one percent of articles focused on blacks whereas only seven percent of the articles focused on Latino discrimination and prejudice (Dovidio et al., 2010, p. 60). As of 2011, there were fifty million Hispanic people living in the United States accounting for sixteen percent of the nations total population. African American individuals living in the United States accounted for forty three million people living in the United States therefore people of Hispanic origin account for the nations largest ethnic or race minority living in the United States (United States Census Bureau, 2014, Table 1). Although Latinos earn an average of $6,000 dollars, more than blacks a year Latinos are still earning on average $15,000 less a year then Caucasians (Dovidio et al., 2010, p. 60). When it comes to educational attainment for those over twenty-five years of age 30.5% of whites, 17.3% of blacks and 12.5% of Latinos hold a bachelor’s degree or higher (Dovidio et al., 2010, p. 60). As a registered nurse, I was shocked to discover that of all the registered nurses in the United States only 1.7% are of Latino decent (Moceri, 2012,  ¶ 1). Upon reading this data I started paying attention to not only my unit but to others within the hospital, we have one Latino nurse out of twenty who work on my floor but inquiring of other floors, they indeed had no Latino nurses employed. This was quite shocking as I work in a heavily Latino populated area therefore caring for this population. Greater racial and ethnic diversity in the health professions would promote patient-provider relationships (Moceri, 2012,  ¶ 1). I feel this to be true where I am employed as a registered nurse, our demographic of patient would  be better served if we had a higher inclusion of Latino nurses because they may be able to relate better to people like themselves. National Origin, Accents and the Law Although employers generally feel justified in denying immigrants employment based on the needs of their businesses, immigrants have regularly filed discriminating lawsuits against these companies since the 1980’s under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which protects immigrants from being discriminated against based on their national origin (Texas Law Review, 20xx, p. 1496). Title VII has been used to litigate against employers who institute English-only rules as non-native English immigrants equate this to national origin discrimination (Texas Law review, 20XX, p. 1496). It seems that under the civil rights act of 1964, these individuals would have a legitimate claim of discrimination but despite the strong links, courts rarely rule in favor of the plaintiffs in these cases. The courts find that there is not significant harm caused to the plaintiff or sufficient business reasons were laid forth by the employer as reasons to justify its decision (Texas Law Review, 20 xx, p. 1496) Title VII states: â€Å"It shall be an unlawful employment practice for an employer – (1) To fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual’s†¦ national origin; or (2) To limit, segregate, or classify his employees or applicants for employment in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as an employee, because of such individual’s†¦national origin† (Texas Law Review, 20xx, p.1497). The problem with article VII is the term, National Origin and its broad interpretation. The Supreme Court examined national origin in 1973 court case Espinoza vs Farah Manufacturing and found national origin â€Å"on its face refers to the country where a person was born, or more broadly, the country from which his or her ancestors came† (Texas Law Review, 20xx p.1497). Because this is still broad in its interpretation, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) defined national origin  as â€Å"the denial of equal employment opportunity because of an individuals, or his or her ancestor’s place of origin† (Texas Law Review, 20xx, p. 1497). Clearly, there is a lot of debate and even more interpretation on what national origin means in the court of law, perhaps this needs a definite clarification to stop perceptions of what individuals think it means. Attorneys are word wizards and if there is not a clear definition of what these two words means they will twist, turn and manipulate them, which in turn may end up harming their plaintiff’s chances of victory. Diversity Planning If I were an executive of Marias Company, I would realize the first stop into stopping future litigation of the same nature is to research and plan a strategic diversity plan. Prior to the development of the diversity department current employees will be gathered where management will explain how important diversity is to the company and it will be launching a new diversity team. The first step in this project is to appoint a diversity manager to serve over a diversity committee that is made up various members with connections to the community’s diverse community groups and organizations. This ensures the company has networking opportunities in order to recruit a wide variety of top shelf minority candidates for employment for a diverse work force within the company. Once the workforce becomes more diverse, employees will visually see others like them instead of seeing them and then the Caucasian men who are their superiors. Not only will employees know how important a culturally diverse workforce is to the company, so will the outside community. The company will promote, advertise and market specifically to the community groups and organizations that promote minorities from African Americans, Latino, Women, Mexican American, Muslims, etc. All groups will be recognized as a crucial cultural group to the success of not only the newly created diversity team but to the company and community itself. All company employees will have the ability to attend monthly diversity meetings where they can bring ideas to the table when it comes to recruitment, employment, questions or concerns. The company will also have a complete open door policy to discuss any concerns, from possible  mistreatment to harassment there will be no repercussions for any employee bringing a concern to the committee for addressing. If a complaint is made, there will be a strict twenty four to forty eight hour period in which the initial complaint will be investigated and dealt with. The diversity team will then act appropriately and upon conclusion, will alert the complainant of the findings. The diversity team will include a trained mediator in situations where both parties must come together to work out differences and come to an agreed upon contingency plan that’s main goal is to make a cohesive work environment. To ensure fairness and justice promotions are to be granted thru the utilization of stringent parameters. Time with the company and disciplinary actions are viewed as a first step in the candidate’s process however, they will not be the only factor. The company will view each candidate’s strengths subsequently corresponding each to the positions requirements to find the best very fit for the position. Once the best match on paper is founded face-to-face interviews will be conducted that will include a standard set of questions for each candidate to answer, based upon the positions requirements. Although the questions do not include right nor wrong answer it will be up to one person from the human resource department and one individual from the human resource department to ultimately come to an agreement on the best fit for the company. Once the decision is made the employee whose resume and in person interview did not warrant the promotion will receive a detailed letter with the factors that did not warrant a promotion at this time. This employee will also have the opportunity to work with both the diversity committee (despite the individual’s ethnicity) and the human resource department to improve substandard criteria that will better serve them for future promotions. Conclusion Papers should end with a conclusion or summary. The assignment directions will specify which is required. It should be concise and contain little or no detail. No matter how much space is left on the page, the references always start on a separate page (insert a page break). References United States Census Bureau. (2014). Annual Estimates of the Resident Population by Sex, Race Alone or in Combination, and Hispanic Origin for the United States, States, and Counties: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013. Retrieved from http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk

Tourism And International Cooperation Tourism Essay

Tourism And International Cooperation Tourism Essay This paper examines the role of international organizations such as the World Bank, the United Nations World Tourism Organization, the European Union and host of other regional based bodies in the promotion of tourism as a tool for development, poverty reduction, socio-economic integration and economic diversification. There is no doubt that tourism has had immense contribution to many third world countries. As a matter of fact, Sharpley and Telfer (2002) opine that among the contemporary economies, tourism has continuously been referred to as the worlds largest industry (p.2). This is because it is one of the fastest growing economic sectors with its contributions being different from other sectors as it contributes to development by generating foreign exchange. As Grenfell (2010) finds, most developing countries depend on tourists from the developed countries and that foreign tourism in many developing nations is more valued and developed than domestic tourism which is underdevelop ed and undervalued (p.3). Tourism can therefore help in eliminating the economic gap that exists between the developed and the developing nations. For international community (developed world) to meaningfully help the third world countries, they need to be actively involved in the vital sectors of economy of these countries. It is therefore crucial that the international community should help these third world countries in the creation of infrastructure in order to promote tourism activities which in turn contribute to the overall economic advancement of these countries. The paper considers ways through which these international bodies can help boost tourism activities in less developed sub-Saharan countries to transform them to performing economies. To this end, the paper will utilize the case of Kenya and Egypt, two sub-Saharan countries experiencing steady economic growth. So as to make a strong argument the paper holds that while many third world countries are endowed with a wide range of economic resources and/or activities, international tourism has over the years continued to play a central role in shaping their economic destinies. International Tourism and Development Tourism in its simplest definition refers to the industry that provides travel and entertainment facilities for people away from their own homes (Richmond, 2000). However, it is important to note that in tourism, there are seasons when the activities are at peak and other times when they go off peak. Most tourists usually go for tourism activities during their vacations which might be based on domestic and/or international calendars. International tourism evolved after the Second World War and by the year 1999, it accounted for six percent of the global economy (Ghosh, Siddique Gabbay, 2003, p.19). This finding is in line with the generalization that tourism accounts for a significant portion of the world economy. In connection to this, it can be argued that international tourism has been a culmination of efforts made by the international community to alleviate developing countries from their vicious cycles of poverty. This argument is supported by the fact most international communities have been at the forefront in sensitizing developing nations on the need to invest heavily in relevant sectors like tourism for sustainable growth and development. After all, and Zhao and Xingqun (2010) finds, the development of any country is the only practical mechanism capable of lifting people out of vicious cycles of poverty and making them equal partners in the society (p.207). Apparently, these authors agree that being one of the major ways through which developing nations earns foreign exchange, tourism has continuously provided the most practical path along which masses can easily be uplifted from the densely intertwined vicious cycles of poverty their reside in. Theories in Tourism Development From a conventional tourism context, at least three theoretical frameworks have been fronted in attempts to streamline the industry and extract the most benefits out of it. These theories include dependency, development versus underdevelopment, and basic needs versus human development theories. It is imperative to point out that these theories have been applied independently and sometimes by players in understanding its management. Dependency Theory Dependency theory is about the unequal economic and political exchange that normally takes place between the developed countries and the less developed ones (Britton, 1982, p.56). The theory is concerned about the dependency that exists in the world in the sense that most developing countries have been noted to continually seek help from the developed countries, help that has mostly been used for infrastructure development purposes in major economic sectors such as tourism. Development versus Underdevelopment Theory On the other hand, underdevelopment theory holds that underdeveloped nations promote tourism with the main aim of making it to be a sector that generates foreign exchange and in so doing help them realize development goals. For instance, many developing nations have been keen on promoting tourism activities in bid to create more employment opportunities for their people, utilize natural as well as manmade resources, and most importantly, as a way of attracting development partners which in turn enhance economic independence (Martin Ian, 2009, p. 53). Even so, it is imperative to point out that unlike the dependency theory the development versus underdevelopment theory is built on the premises of good corporate governance and unrelenting evolutionary pressures emanating from perpetual demographics and technological change (Milne, 2001, p.372). As such therefore, this theory seems to be more bent on incorporating international institutions given that it is known that they play a core role in enhancing transparency and accountability among developing economies. Tellingly, this theory has a got a firm conviction on the role played by these global institutions in shaping tourism advancement and development particularly in the third world countries. Though they are many the most conspicuous (in terms of their overall contributions) of these institutions are; World Bank and International Monetary Fund which have been instrumental in shaping tourism activities especially in the less developed countries. Basic Needs versus Human Development Theory Public policy enthusiasts have been noted to base most of their analysis on the Maslows hierarchy of needs which is by far one of the most motivational theories in the public domain (Andriotis, 2001, p.312). In relation to tourism activities, it is arguable that tourists also attach great importance on the hierarchy of needs as presented by Maslow when making tour expedition plans. For instance, one of the greatest concerns among tourists is their safety. This is because when their physiological safety is guaranteed their self esteem will be boosted and therefore this will heighten the chances of self actualization which has been noted to be the greatest achievement that many tourists seek while in their tour expedition. Role of the World Bank and other International Agencies in Tourism and International Development World Bank and other international institutions have the noble role of facilitating international development. However, most of these developments have been concentrated in the less developed countries as these institutions embark on fulfilling one of their core mandate of facilitating growth and development in the form of bridging the gap between the developed world and the less development countries. The devotion of the World Bank in trying to bring international development in these nations can be seen from several bodies, for example, International Finance Corporation which is one of the World Bank constituent agencies has immensely invested in tourism especially in the poorest countries of the world (Youthink, 2010). World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) have also been major players in infrastructural development in the least developed countries. Infrastructures such as road and other telecommunication network have been brought up in these countries under the initiative of World Bank and IMF. The provision of infrastructure facilities and services for tourists, that is, roads, communications, health and sanitation services have been designed to benefit the tourists and the local communities at the same time (WTO, 2002, p.31).this has occasioned progressive development in majority of these countries. In addition, World Tourism Organization, a sector-specific organization that brings together tourist destination territories in close partnership with both the World Bank and the IMF, is tasked with the core role of promoting development and sustainability of tourism activities particularly among developing countries. This organization makes sure that global ethics and codes on matters that relates to tourism are strictly adhered to by the member countries (International Relations Cooperation, 2011). No doubt, efforts coordinated through this organization have over the years continued to bring about sustained growth and development which translates to the overall economic advancement of its member states which in turn leads to international development. International Cooperation Initiatives that Contribute to Tourism and Development As earlier mentioned, tourism is a key aspect in any countrys development agenda. As such therefore, in a bid to guarantee rapid growth and advancement through tourism, a number of international cooperation initiatives have since been instituted to help contribute to tourism and development as a whole. For instance, the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) is one of these co-operations that have been put in place to help steer tourism and development agendas among member countries. Precisely, ever since it was incorporation WTTC has been committed to enhancing environmentally sustainable development programs (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 1999, p.3). Away from the specific roles that WTTC plays and basing on the notion that tourism is heavily depended on environmental features it is only wise to argue that any cooperation that intends to promote tourism must safeguard the immediate environment so as to avoid the depletion of natural features for the future tourism activities. In this regard and according to WTTC research, the travel and tourism sector in India, for instance, generates as much as 17.7 million employment opportunities for both Indian citizens and nationals of other countries. No doubt this is a practical indicator that indeed tourism industry plays a central role in creating positive development co-operations among the world economies. In addition, in Central America, the countries in the region formed America Regional Integration (ARI) that bring the countries together in the region and facilitates cooperation initiatives in several spheres of the economy. ARI outlines several contours of the dual processes of regional integration and tourism development in the region (Ferguson, 2010). This brings forth cooperation of the member countries in collaboration on issues that relate to tourism and general development matters. Moreover, International Tourism Partnership (ITP) is another international body that brings forth cooperation among nations on issues relating to tourism. Within ITP, airlines, hotels, tour operators and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) work together to promote sustainable business activities within tourism and travel industry (Sharpley David, 2008, p.3). This ensures coordination of tourists activities which is very important to tourist related features that spans several countries. Given that tourism is taken to be a driver of economies of most countries, it is therefore important that bilateral and multilateral cooperation among neighbouring as well as far apart countries be interwoven with tourism activities. Most countries have therefore entered into foreign policy cooperation with several partners in crafting joint policies that seek to promote tourist activities between or among them (David, Maria Ginger, 2008, p.141). perhaps this is following the realization that joint policy formulation between and among nations provides good operating environment for tourism activities which in turn spur economic growth among the participating parties. Tourism has also become a core factor in poverty alleviation through Sustainable Tourism Eradicate Poverty (STEP), an initiative that has since gained support from major tourist destination territories across the developing world. In the year 2000, poverty was identified as the biggest challenge on the globe and therefore millennium development goals were set up to help eradicate poverty by the year 2015. Those in tourism sector responded well for the call and World Tourism Organization launched STEP initiative which is focused on long term mechanisms of sustaining tourism activities that can alleviate poverty and ensure development of the less developed countries (World Tourism Organization, 2010). The STEP is a proactive initiative that seeks to bring forth development to the disadvantaged groups especially in the less developed nations in order to attain the millennium development goal number one of poverty eradication. The Case Study of Kenya and Egypt Tourism Profile in Kenya Tourism is one of the most stable and well established sectors of the Kenyan economy. As a matter of fact, the tourism industry occupies the second position in terms of foreign exchange earnings amassed by the country every year (Davies Knivett, 2008, p. 215). The main attraction ranges from national parks which are spread around the country and game reserves. The renowned Great Rift Valley scenery is also another key tourist attraction in the country. These are the key tourism activities although there are other diverse natural as well as manmade features that serve as supplements to the main features. The Kenya Tourist Board (KTB) is the central agency formulated by the Kenyan government to spearhead all matters related to the marketing of the industry. In addition, the seriousness with which tourism activities are taken within the country is underscored by the fact that the Kenyan government has created an independent ministry to coordinate tourism activities within the country. The KTB as well as a host of other national and international agencies that are actively involved in running tourism activities in the country operate under this ministry. Some of these bodies include Ecotourism Kenya which promotes sustainable tourism practices within the tourism industry in the country (Ecotourism Kenya, 2011). This ensures that the environment which is vital in tourism activities is not adversely affected by man activities as well as enhancement of sustainable activities that relate to tourism for the future of the country. Given that Kenya is endowed with a wide range of diversity of resources that ranges right from mountain ecosystems, marine to arid and semi arid (Mwanjala, 2005, p.4), it can be argued that this body plays a core role. In addition, the Kenya government has put much emphasis on the conservation of natural ecosystems and in so doing a total of twenty seven national parks, four wildlife sanctuaries and thirty four national reserves have since been set aside and continuously protected by the successive governments as a way of promoting sustainable tourism activities. International Agencies Involvement in Tourism Development in Kenya For a long time, the Kenyan government has continued to recognize the tourism sector as a tool for poverty alleviation and economic advancement. In so doing, the government has sought cooperation from the international community in participating actively in tourism activities within the country. For instance, the government has succeeded in initiating sustainable cooperation with international agencies such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and other United Nations bodies to assist in instituting necessary infrastructure that could facilitate tourists activities. This has led to deeper involvement of these international bodies in setting up of key structures for example, most of the major highways in the country were put up by the joint efforts of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (Manyara Jones, 2009, p.238). This has positively impacted on the growth of tourism sector as well as other related sectors such as hospitality and agricultures industries. In addition, Kenya has ever since been a member of the International Ecotourism Society (TIES) which is the agency that coordinates ecotourism in the world (Akama, 2002, p.12). The organization therefore promotes tourism development in Kenya by providing technical assistance, training, research in the tourism sector and provision of standards and guidelines that ensures that tourism services and products maintains and upholds the standards required in the world market and in so doing promoting and upholding the existing natural ecosystems. How Tourism Development has Addressed Some Problems in Kenya Kenya is a developing country characterized by several problems that are related to underdevelopment. The most dominant of all these problems is the increasing poverty levels among majority of its population. Over the years, the tourism sector has continued to occupy the central position in the fight against the increasing levels of poverty particularly among communities living within most natural ecosystems frequented by tourists. As a matter of fact, through the foreign exchange that the country amasses every year, several development initiatives are established in addressing the biting poverty levels within the country. As dominant sector in the country, tourism has employed quite a significant number of the Kenyan population. Today several Kenyans serves in several sub sectors of the industry that include tour guides, transport services, as well as areas of food and beverages and accommodations services. A significant percent of the population earn their living from these tourism related occupations and as a result contribute immensely to the Gross Domestic Product of the country. Apart from solving unemployment related problems, tourism also helps in fighting and alleviating poverty problems in the country (Jenkins, 1982, p.62).Needless to say, by addressing these two core social problems, tourism has positively boosted the countrys economy. Developing countries have also been characterized by poor infrastructure network and Kenya is not an exception. However, with the involvement of the international agencies such as World Bank and IMF in boosting tourism activities, several infrastructural facilities have since been set up (Walter, 2003). Despite this contributing to tourism, it has also been beneficial to the entire economic performance as other sectors of the economy such as trade, agriculture among others also use these infrastructural developments. This has indirectly helped to address even other sectors such as telecommunication in the country. Effectiveness of International Cooperation Initiatives in Tourism Development in Kenya International cooperation has been beneficial to the tourism sector in Kenya. Through international initiative like efforts put in by organs such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, tourism has been identified as the most promising industry in developing states including Kenya (James, 2010). The international cooperation that exists between Kenya and these agencies has led to effective as structures of economy being set up which both tourism and other sectors of the economy have benefited. The core objective of tourism as a sector of the economy is to accelerate the economy of the country through sound tourism management. This has been effective in the Kenyan case since tourism is graded as the second largest foreign earner to the country. This has been made possible by initiatives of the international agencies in promoting tourist activities in the country which have resulted to positive outcome where by tourism earning have been d increasing tremendously. Tourism profile in Egypt Historically, Egypt has been widely known for its massive tourism industry. It has always been a destination where Europeans and other groups visit to see some of its antiquities dating back to the eras of early civilization (Egypt Government, 2010). There are unique tourism destinations in Egypt which includes but not limited to Safaga, Hurghada, Sharm el Sheikh, pyramids among others which have been at the centre of attraction for many tourists. This makes tourism one of the most valuable and important sector of the Egypt economy. For example, in the year 2008, eleven billion US dollars of the countrys income was attributed to tourism sector. In terms of infrastructural institution, Egypt is fairly developed compared to other developing countries in the region and this gives it some edge against other players such as Kenya (Tama, 1988). The peak season for tourists activities in Egypt starts from mid October to May which is normally characterized by spring and winter in terms of climatic conditions. However, it is important to note that in terms of safety, terrorism has at occasions affected the industry negatively with foreign tourists being targeted as potential victims. This has often translated to negative impacts on the industry. How Tourism Development is Addressed Some Problems in Egypt Tourism has been described as the act of people travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for leisure and which has been remarkable for economic and social improvements of countries and their people (Zakaria et al, 2009). In this regard, Egypt has been a dominant player in the fields of tourism due to its historical richness. The country has therefore reaped heavily from the sector and in so doing; tourism has helped to address several problems of underdevelopment. This ranges from infrastructural development, to creation of employment opportunities to stable economy. The significant revenues that are accrued from the tourism sector are also diverted and used in other sectors of the economy. For example, some of the revenues are directed to the education sector where by significant improvement and advancements have since been made. This has helped in solving the illiteracy problem which is a major problem to most developing countries. Effectiveness of International Cooperation Initiatives in Tourism Development in Egypt There exist several international agencies that are in cooperation with Egypt whose main agenda is to develop tourism industry which in turn helps to revolutionize the economy. For example, there exists several Italian NGOs which have since partnered with the civil society with the aim of promoting development through tourist related activities (Cooperation Italiana, 2011). Through these NGOs a number social initiatives have since been directly initiated among the communities living near major tourist attractions and indirectly across the country nation-wide activities that span a wide range of social issues such as education, health, security and agriculture. This has been made possible through giving-back-to-the-community initiatives which are part of the wider mutual partnerships between the Italian and the Egyptian governments. In addition, UN constituent agencies such as the UNESCO have also entered into cooperation which the government of Egypt where several initiatives within the realm of education and cultural tourism have since been undertaken (Yerevan, 1981). As a matter of fact, the agreement on cultural tourism can be argued to be a positive measure toward the protection and promotion of the Egyptian cultural sites and practices. Through this cooperation, various cultural sites and activities have been successfully marketed leading to significant improvement and development in tourism activities and hence the entire Egyptian economy. In addition, Egypt enjoy close foreign cooperation with the United States and it is from this close ties that United States-Egypt Friendship Society was established (Egypt, 2008). This cooperation has facilitated economic benefits to Egypt from United States which are granted to the government of Egypt to improve various tourism activities alongside with other sectors of the economy. Moreover, Egypt is a member of the Triangular Cooperation which is an organization that draws it membership from several countries and which provide aid to different sectors of the economy to the member states (Talita, 2010). This cooperation has contributed positively to the development of Egypt economy as the aid given is directed to development sectors including but not limited to tourism. This has translated to positive economic development of Egypt as a country as it is one of the stable economies among the developing world. Conclusion Tourism is a global phenomenon which manifests itself locally, regionally and internationally. It is widely categorized into two categories, with tourism activities that involve purely local people being referred to as domestic tourism while those involving participants from across the border are referred to as foreign tourism. Tourism has been proved to be a vital driver of economies of majority of the countries. In the two developing countries discussed in this paper (Kenya and Egypt), tourism has been at the centre stage in transforming their economies and addressing pertinent societal concerns such as poverty, unemployment and illiteracy. In addition, tourism has also positively impacted on other sectors of economy in these two countries through the improvement of the local infrastructure frameworks.

Analysing Sunnis And Shiites Split Religion Essay

Analysing Sunnis And Shiites Split Religion Essay The difference between Sunni and Shia sects of Islam are not to the gigantic proportions as most Western literature assume. It is true that there are minor variations in the way they take their respective religious heads and attribute meaning to the history of the family of Muhammads, however, cultural and political differences hold the most divisive power over the religious forces. It is therefore significant to note that both sects believe and put emphasis in the Five Pillars of Islam, believe in and read same Holy Quran, and furthermore consider each other Muslims. The five pillars that form the core of their spiritual sanctity are Testimony of faith (Kalima), Prayer (Salat), Almsgiving (Zakat), Fasting (Sawm), Pilgrimage (Hajj) (Huda, 2010). The split between the Sunnis and Shia can be traced back to the death of the Prophet Muhammad, and the dilemma of the successor of Muhammad as the leader of the Muslim nation. Prophet Muhammad died in the evening of June 8, 632 A.D. (the twelfth of Rabi al-Away) at the age of sixty-three. There after, the Sunni Muslims were in agreement with the stand taken by most of the Prophets companions that the new head should be chosen from among those deemed competent of the job. This is the position that was adopted and implemented. The Prophet Muhammads close acquaintance and counselor, Abu Bark, consequently became the first Caliph of the Islamic nation. It is worth noting that the word Sunni is an Arabic word meaning one who follows the traditions of the Prophet. Contrary to the Sunni belief over the succession, some Muslims hold the idea that leadership should have been from the Prophets own family, handed over to those specifically appointed by him, or amid Imams chosen by God Himself. These were the Shia Muslims. They believed that after the death of Prophet Muhammad, leadership ought to have been passed on directly to his cousin/son-in-law, Ali. Since those historical years, Shia Muslims have not acknowledged the power and authority of elected leaders. The Shia Muslims instead opted to recognize and obey the Imams they believed were chosen by the Prophet Muhammad or by God Himself. The word Shia is an Arabic word for a group or supportive party of people. It is short form of Shia-t-Ali, or the Party of Ali. Shias are also referred to as followers of Ahl-al-Bayt or People of the Household (of the Prophet) (Huda). Majority of the Muslims are the Sunni Muslims at 85% of all the Muslims allover the world. A tangible number of Shia Muslims are found in Iraq and Iran, with some large minority communities in Syria, Yemen, Lebanon, Bahrain etc. Having looked at the brief history of the split of the two sects and the reasons behind the split, it is fundamental therefore, to look at the differences in religious belief s, leadership, texts, and any other that may be. From the historical differences in political leadership, some spiritual life aspects were consequently changed and since diverge between the two groups. However, as note hitherto, the Shia and Sunni Muslims hold in common the fundamental articles of Islamic belief and are brethren in the Islam faith. As a matter of fact, rarely or never at all will a Muslim identify themselves as Shia or Sunni Muslim but rather as Muslim (Austine Cline). Shia Muslims believe that the Imam is naturally sinless since his authority comes directly from God. From this, the Shia Muslims revere and adore the Imams as saints and strive to perform pilgrimages for divine intervention to their shrines and tombs. Countering this is the Sunni Muslim belief that there is no foundation in Islam for a hereditary advantaged category or rank of religious leaders. They therefore have no place for the pilgrimage to the saints shrines. Sunni Muslims argue that control of the community is not hereditary or a birthright, but a trust that must be earned and therefore can be given or taken away by the people themselves. Another difference comes in the sanctity of religious texts. Shia Muslims have some resentment to some of the contemporaries of the Prophet Muhammad. This sprouts from their stands and deeds in the historical years of discord about leadership among the Muslim nations. It is said that Abu Bakr, Umar, Aisha, etc (Sunnis) narrated much about the Prophet Muhammads life and spiritual encounters, practice and journey. The Shia Muslims reject these Hadith do not take them as a basis for their religious practices. This accordingly informs divergence in religious practice between the Sunnis and Shias. The differences concern aspects of religious life: prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, and so on and so forth. For instance Shiites can condense the five daily prayers into 3 or 4 yet Sunnis dont, Shiites might pay their alms (Zakat) directly to the poor, yet Sunnis pay to the state. Shiites also promotes a provisional marriage (muttah) for men travelling far from home while Sunnis dont ascribe to this (Sunnis vs. Shiites). The Shias place their forehead onto apiece of natural material while praying (clay tablet, soil or sand from Karbala(where Imam Hussain was martyred), rather than onto a prayer mat. The Sunnis however recommend that one should not prostrate on a natural surface. Shias hold their hands at their sides while praying while Sunnis on the other side their arms-right over left- and clasp their hands, though either is acceptable. Religious Shia women black like the male religious leaders. Conventional Sunni women cover around the perimeter of the face with the hijab but only to below their chin such that the chin can show in part while the Shia women will cover the perimeter of the face and the chin completely. Shias more often than not derive their name from the name or titles of saints. They often draw their lineage from to Ali and Fatimah. The three Sects of Shiites Although, through history there were several branches of Shia Muslims, currently only three are predominant. The Ashariyyah, profoundly called the Twelvers, the Ismaili and the Zaidi. Ashariyyah or Twelvers as the adherents are called believe in the twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as the Twelve Imams. These were the successors of Prophet Muhammad and were spiritual and political leaders. On average 85% of Shia are Twelvers. Ismaili is the second largest sect of the Shia Islam after the Twelvers. They derive their name from their acceptance of Ismail ibn Jafar as the divinely-appointed spiritual successor to Jafar as-sadiq, they differ from the Twelvers, who accept Musa al-Kizim, the younger brother of Ismail, as the proper Imam. Zaidi are followers of the Zaidi fiqh and they identify with the first four of the Twelve Imams but they accept Zayd ibn Ali as their Fifth Imam, in place of his brother Muhammad al-Baqir. After Zayd ibn Ali, the Zaidi recognize other descendants of Hasan ibn Ali or Husayn ibn Ali to be Imams. Among the well known Zaidi Imams are Yahya ibn Zayd, Muhammad al Nafs az-Zakiyah and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah.

Book report lord of the rings :: essays research papers

Vol. III - THE RETURN OF THE KINGS: Everyone except Frodo and Sam arrives at the kingdom of Gondor, and though the people of Gondor are amazed and frightened at first by the huge army of walking trees that accompany them, everyone smiles and accepts them when Gandalf and Aragorn reveal themselves. The brothers Denethor and Boromir, however, see that Aragorn brings knowledge from the North which will give their kingship over to Faramir, the true King, and so they secretly conspire against him. And so later on, when the forces of Mordor arrive to attack Gondor, they successfully plot to have Aragorn positioned so he must face the Witch-King in single combat. The battle is too much for Aragorn, and just as he is about to die he is saved by Eowyn, a woman of Rohan who loves him, and Merry, who slays the Witch-king in single combat by using ancient hobbit-magic and so reveals himself to be the lost Thain of the Shire. Even as the forces of Mordor retreat, they are swept into the Sea by great ships brought by Faramir, the tr ue Prince of Dol Amroth, from the hidden city of Osgiliath further up the Great River. Meanwhile Sam chases the tarantula back to the lair of Ungoliant, the Queen of Spiders, and after a tense argument about the nature of good and evil she finally reveals to Sam the cure for the spider's-venom which holds Frodo in thrall. Sam thanks Ungoliant for her mercy and wisdom and revives Frodo, and they set off into Mordor to find Gollum. "Oft help will come from the weak when the Wise are foolish," Gandalf once said, and sure enough all the spiders of Mordor are willing to help Frodo and Sam in their quest. Their course leads them to Mount Doom, where just as they arrive they find Gollum claiming the Ring for himself. The Dark Lord Sauron then becomes aware of them, and leaves the Dark Tower to come forth and destroy them; but just them Frodo and Sam rush Gollum and force him backwards into the Cracks of Doom. The Ring is destroyed, and without it Sauron is destroyed by the sunlight. Frodo and Sam leave the Mountain just in time to see the great armies of Aragorn and Faramir coming across the plains of Mordor to greet them. Boromir and Denethor are driven away from Gondor forever, but mercifully spared by King Faramir, and Aragorn is revealed to be the long-lost King of Arnor, the North-Kingdom of old.

The Wilderness in Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing, Mary Austin’s Land of Li

The Wilderness in Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing, Mary Austin’s Land of Little Rain, and Gary Snyder’s The Practice of the Wild Journeys into the wilderness test far more than the physical boundaries of the human traveler. Twentieth century wilderness authors move beyond the traditional travel-tour approach where nature is an external diversion from everyday life. Instead, nature becomes a catalyst for knowing our internal wilderness and our universal connections to all living things. In Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing, Mary Austin’s Land of Little Rain, and Gary Snyder’s The Practice of the Wild, â€Å"nature† mirrors each narrator: what the narrators ultimately discover in the wilderness reflects what needs they bring to it. Their points of view, expectations, and awareness all determine their experiences of the wild and â€Å"self.† Ultimately, however, each work reveals that the experience of nature need not be restricted only to â€Å"self-discovery,† but may well expand to an understanding of the spiritual â€Å"family self.† Atwood’s psychological novel describes the return journey by its narrator from a self-centered, urban existence to the Canadian wilderness of her youth, where she finds the meaning of family and her role in it. Though not overtly psychological, Mary Austin’s intense devotion to the life and people of her desert community suggests these have become replacements for her own, unsuccessful attempts at conventional family life. Finally, Gary Snyder’s kinship with nature exemplifies a life integrated in all aspects—a union that merges the practical, psychological, and spiritual into what may be called the â€Å"cosmic† family. Birth of Family Margaret Atwood’s Surfacing describes the heroine/narrator’s phy... ...our experiences: the progress of our consciousness. This progress resolves issues of the self and one’s individual past, heals our psychic pain, and releases us from powerlessness and fear. By accepting the wilderness in ourselves we will understand the wilderness in each other and our connectedness. Nature functions as catalyst, as guide, as test, as teacher. Then opening the spiritual window to grace, we ultimately realize the possibility of being fully human. References Atwood, Margaret. Surfacing (New York: Fawcett Crest, 1972). Austin, Mary. Stories from the Country of Lost Borders. Ed. Marjorie Pryse (New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1987). Pryse, Marjorie. "Introduction" to Stories from the Country of Lost Borders by Mary Austin. (New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1987). Snyder, Gary. The Practice of the Wild (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1990).

Drug Abuse in America

? Literatue Review 3 Section 1: Introduction One of the major problem in modern society is the abuise of drugs. Some use illegal â€Å"street† drugs that have no medical use while others abuse prescription drugs for nonmedical purposes. Either way, it is dangerous can lead to serious consquences, including death. In my paper i will answer two main questions; Why and how are drugs available for the general public to use? What are the mental,physical,and financial consquences of abusing drugs(prescprition or â€Å"street†)? My main source for answering these questions was the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) website. It is a federal angency that is responsible for enforcing the medical laws established by the justice department. This includes regulating laws regarding pharmacies, physcians, and drugs. Mr. Michael Martin, the manager of Walgreen's Pharmacy was also a credible source as he provided clear explanations if i had any questions. I chose these questions because these are two very important question because they not just impact the abuser but society as well. However, my focus in this paper will be the consquences because they are a serious threat. Section 2: Summary In order to understand the consquences of drug abuse, one must know why drugs are abused. There are many reasons for drugs abuse, â€Å"The reason for taking the drug depends on the type of drug. Often times the main cause is to escape from their problems or from peer pressure. After some time, the reasons change. They become dependent on the drug and they feel sick or cannot function properly without it. † (Martin) Often times the cause for using a drug is because the brain has a sort of reward center. It creates a pleasurable sensation when a certain action occurs. For example, for a stressed employee drinking after work helps him relax. It causes his mind, mainly his central nervous system to slow down and all the worries in the world are gone for the emploee. This provides an instance of pleasure as the brain feels good, it is able to â€Å"relax'. The four type of drugs are â€Å"depressants, stimulants, sedatives, and hallucionogens† (Martin). Depressants such as alcohol and sleeping pills make a person feel more relaxed. Stimulants like Ecstacy, amphetamines, nicotine and caffeine keep a person energetic and awake. However, once the effects are over, hunger and tiredness will set in. Sedatives such as heroine, morphine and codeine offer relief from pain but cause sleepiness. Hallucinogens, for instance, Ecstacy and LSD, may give strange sensations, causing some to see, feel or hear things that are not there. Each drug provides a relative pleasurable sensation for the user. According to the National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC) nearly 35 million individuals used illicit drugs or abused prescription drugs in 2007. The federal government â€Å"has allocated more than $14 billion dollars for drug treatment and prevention, counterdrug law enforcement, drug interdiction, and international counterdrug assistance† (NDIC). As stated earlier there are illict â€Å"street† drugs and then there are prescription drugs, both with the potential to be abused. The first focus will be the origin of illict, or â€Å"street† drugs. Drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) are the main cause for the production and trafficking of â€Å"street† drugs. â€Å"Mexican and Columbian DTOs generate, remove, and launder between $18 to $39 billion in wholesale drug proceeds annually. Mexican DTOs are the greatest threat to the United States. Mexcian DTOs are responsible for a â€Å"majority of the cocaine available in the U. S. market† (NDIC). DTOs are responsible for the production of drugs and for trafficking it into U. S. cities. Urban gangs are involved in the sales of these drugs, â€Å"aided by their connections with Mexican and Asian DTOs. Currently Mexcian DTOs continue to â€Å"establish new markets for mexican heroin in northeastern states while gangs relocate from inner cities to suburban and rural areas. However, a threat bigger than the illict â€Å"street† drug problem is the abuse of prescription drugs. Nearly 7 million Americans abuse prescription drugs-more than the number who abuse cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, ecstasy, and inhalants combined† (DEA). According to the DEA, prescription pain relievers are new drug users' drug of choice vs. marijuana or cocaine. Unlike illicit drugs, prescription drugs are not synthesized by DTOs in some lab. Prescription drugs are obtained through decieving various medical professionals, theft, or from the internet. Decieving medical professionals is a technique known as â€Å"doctor shopping†. This involves a patient going to a doctor for a prescription drug. Then the same patient will go to a different doctor, reveal the same symptons without acknowledging the previous doctor visit, and get another prescription for the same drug. Then the patient will go to more doctors and repeat the steps. In the end, the patient will have numerous prescriptions for the same drug each from a different doctor. The patient will have each prescription filled, most likely at various pharmacies and will have a high quantity of one drug. Now the patient may use the drug or maybe even sell the drug to others who will also misuse it. Some other method of obtaining prescrition include theft from pharmacies or homes, and from traditional drug dealing. Another relatively new method obtaining prescription drugs is through cyber pharmacies. There are many illegal internet pharmacies, that take a prescription, fake or real, and fill it for a patient without any knowledge of the patient or anything else. These pharmacies may also â€Å"check† patients, write them a prescription, and then fill it for them, all without a single face to face with the patient. The consquences of using these illicit drugs is very serious. According to the DEA, nearly one in ten high school seniors admit to abusing prescription painkillers. â€Å"A shocking 40% of teens and adults think prescription drug abuse is safer than abusing â€Å"street† drug because prescription drugs have a medical purpose. â€Å"The diversion of prescription drugs cost insurance companies up to $72. 5 billion dollars annually† (NDIC). Almost $48 billion dollars of the $72. 5 billion are paid by public, governement funded insurance companies. The threat level of drug abuse depends on the dosage of the drug. For example, Dextromethorphan (street name: DXM, Skittles, Robo) is â€Å"an over the counter cough suppresent commonly found in cold medications. DXM is abused in higher than recommended dosages, mainly by adolescents, to create visual and auditory hallucinations. The recommended dosage of DXm is 15-30mg. Taking a dosage of 100-200mg results in mild stimulation, whereas taking a 200-400mg dosage results in euphoria and hallucinations. A 300-600 dosgae results in distorted visual perceptions and loss of motor cordinations. A 500-1500 dosgae may result in dissociative sedation. Any higher dosage will lead to death. As indicated above, the dosage of the abused drug affect the consquences. The higher the dosage than recommended, the more dangerous and serious the consquences. The most abused substance is hydrocodone, which is a depressant. It is a pain reliever that calms the body. â€Å"There are many indications of drug abuse. The symptons witnessed depend on the type of drug being abused† (MayoClinic). Depression and low blood pressure are indicaters of opioid painkillers abuse; drowsiness and impaired judgement indicate sedatives abuse. Stimulants abuse is indicated by insomnia and irregular heartbeat. Section 3: Analysis The research was very helpful in providing answers for the questions. I learned that there are many ways to obtain illict â€Å"street† drugs and prescription drugs. The street drugs are produced by DTOs and even trafficked by DTOs. However, they are sold by local gangs in various environements, mainly in inner cities. I learned that prescription drugs are obtained through decieving and fradulant online transactions. The most suprising fact was that drug abuse has a big affect on society. The cost for counterdrug enforcement and diversion of drugs is very costly and the money could be diverted to something more useful. The research has thought me alot about drug abuse and why avoiding it is the best option. It was helpful to learn these facts and learning the dangers of falling into the viscious drug abuse cycle. Works Cited â€Å"DEA Briefs & Background, Drugs and Drug Abuse, Prescription Drug Fact Sheet. † PE Html PUBLIC â€Å"-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1. 0 Transitional//EN† â€Å"http://www. w3. org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional. dtdhttp://www. w3. org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional. dtd † Welcome to the United States Department of Justice. Drug Enforcement Administration. Web. 13 Mar. 2010. .

Automotive industry Essay

In compliance with the fulfillment of the requirements on the course â€Å"Writing in the Discipline† and in accordance with your oral instructions dated November 19, 2013, we are submitting our library research paper entitled â€Å"The Uses of Automobiles†. The main purpose of this research paper is to know automobiles and its uses, to explain the advantages and disadvantages that automobiles bring to the society, and to suggest ways on how to conserve energy using new technologies of automobiles. We hope that this paper will meet your approval. Respectfully yours, Kenneth Llauderes and Mark Joseph Sueta BSME- 1 BSME- 1. The Uses of Automobiles A Library Research Paper Presented to Mrs. Astrid O. Haresco Faculty, Department of Languages Western Institute of Technology In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Course ENGLISH 2- Writing in the Discipline By Kenneth Llauderes- BSME 1 Mark Joseph Sueta- BSME 1 February 2014 Table of Contents Page †¢Introduction 1 ?History 2 ?Contribution to the society 4 †¢Application of automobile as Transportation 5 ?Automobile Industry 5 ?Automobile Racing 6 ?Automobiles Business 9 †¢New Technologies of Automobiles 11 ?Antipollution Strategies 11 ?Safety Features 12 ?Hybrid- Electric Vehicles 13? Computers and Navigation Devices 14 ?Eco- Friendly Automobile 16 ?Other Improvements 19 †¢Conclusion 20 †¢Recommendation 20 †¢Bibliography 21 Llauderes, K. & Sueta, M. J. â€Å"The uses of automobiles†. Western Institute of Technology. 2014 Automobiles transport people in a more comfortable and more efficient manner. It is a propelled vehicle used primarily on public roads but adaptable to other surface. They are classified by size, style, number of doors and intended use. The typical automobile also called a car, auto, motorcar, and passenger car, has four wheels and can carry up to six people including a driver. The researchers travelled and gathered information from the correct and truthful data from the internet and different libraries in Iloilo. The researchers conclude that automobiles change the world and the lives of the people because it has a profound impact on the society. As a whole it played a very important role in the society and it is one of the key elements of industrial economies and no doubt, it will continue to shape our culture and economy well into the next generations. The researchers recommend that the overnment agencies especially Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC) support the production of automobiles that have antipollution features and they must impose rules and regulations, and build more highways and bridges in response on the increasing number of automobiles. THESIS STATEMENT: Automobiles transport people in a more comfortable and more efficient manner. I. What is an automobile A. Definition B. History C. Contribution to the society II. Application of automobile as Transportation A. Automobile Industry B. Automobile Racing C. Automobiles Business III. New Technologies of Automobiles A. Antipollution Strategies B. Safety Features C. Hybrid- Electric Vehicles D. Computers and Navigation Devices E. Eco- Friendly Automobile F. Other Improvements Introduction An automobile is a self- propelled vehicle used primarily on public roads but adaptable to other surfaces. They are classified by size, style, number of doors and intended use. The typical automobile also called a car, auto, motorcar, and passenger car, has four wheels and can carry up to six people including a driver. Larger vehicles designed to carry more passengers are called vans, minivans, omnibuses, or buses. In this paper, those used to carry cargo are called pickups or trucks, depending on their size and design. Minivans are van- style vehicles built on a passenger car frame that can usually carry up to eight passengers. Sport- utility vehicles, also known as SUVs are more rugged than passenger cars and are designed for driving in mud or snow. The researchers chose automobile as their topic among all the topics because it is the one that people uses in their daily lives as transportation and because it is one of the key elements of industrial economies and no doubt it will continue to shape their culture and economy well into the next generations. This paper is intended to analyze and examine how technology especially automobiles change the world and the lives of the people. This paper is all about automobiles, its history, uses and countries that produce automobiles. It also discusses about the advantages and disadvantages that automobiles bring to them. It also focuses on the manufacture and servicing of automobiles. 1 This paper is gathered from the correct and truthful data from different libraries in Iloilo and by the use of the internet, the researchers also gathered some data from different resources. They use the information from the latest resources of the library. They also travelled in nearby provinces of Iloilo to collect knowledge that they apply in this paper. This paper is divided into three parts namely: what is an automobile; application of automobile as transportation and; new technologies of automobile to support the thesis statement: automobiles transport people in a more comfortable and more efficient manner. History The history of the automobile actually began about 4,000 years ago when the first wheel was used for transportation in India. In the early 15th century the Portuguese arrived in China and the interaction of the two cultures led to a variety of new technologies, including the creation of a wheel that turned under its own power. By the 1600s small steam-powered engine models had been developed, but it was another century before a full-sized engine-powered vehicle was created. In 1769 French Army officer Captain Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built what has been called the first automobile. Cugnot’s three-wheeled, steam-powered vehicle carried four persons. Designed to move artillery pieces, it had a top speed of a little more than 3. 2 km/h (2 mph) and had to stop every 20 minutes to build up a fresh head of steam 2 As early as 1801 successful but very heavy steam automobiles were introduced in England. Laws barred them from public roads and forced their owners to run them like trains on private tracks. In 1802 a steam-powered coach designed by British engineer Richard Trevithick journeyed more than 160 km (100 mi) from Cornwall to London. Steam power caught the attention of other vehicle builders. In 1804 American inventor Oliver Evans built a steam-powered vehicle in Chicago, Illinois. French engineer Onesiphore Pecqueur built one in 1828. British inventor Walter Handcock built a series of steam carriages in the mid-1830s that were used for the first omnibus service in London. By the mid-1800s England had an extensive network of steam coach lines. Horse-drawn stagecoach companies and the new railroad companies pressured the British Parliament to approve heavy tolls on steam-powered road vehicles. The tolls quickly drove the steam coach operators out of business. During the early 20th century steam cars were popular in the United States. Most famous was the Stanley Steamer, built by American twin brothers Freelan and Francis Stanley. A Stanley Steamer established a world land speed record in 1906 of 205. 44 km/h (121. 573 mph). Manufacturers produced about 125 models of steam-powered automobiles, including the Stanley, until 1932. 3 Contribution to the society The automobile has had a profound impact on the society. It has brought superhighways, paved bridges, motels, vacations, suburbia and economic growth which accompanied them. Automobiles provide a great deal of personal freedom to their owners. The article by journalist Kevin A. Wilson provides a history of automobile design and production in the United States, and surveys recent efforts to develop lower- and zero-emissions vehicles, such as electric cars and diesel-electric hybrid cars. As suburbs, generally without public transportation, grew, cars became necessary and auto sales increased. Easy credit facilitated the purchase of cars. The number of cars on the road leaped from 40 million in 1950 to 60 million in 1960. The Federal Highway Act of 1956 created the Interstate Highway System, a 68,400-km (42,500-mi) network of limited-access highways. This system spurred further suburban growth. Technological advances transformed production. The new machine-tool industry, a trail of inventions, including the telephone, typewriter, linotype, phonograph, electric light, cash register, air brake, refrigerator car, and automobile, led to new industries. Business leaders learned how to operate and coordinate many different economic activities across broad geographic areas. Businesses were thus able to become larger, and the modern corporation became an important form of business organization. 4 Application of Automobile as Transportation Automobile industry Automobile Industry is an industry that produces automobiles and other gasoline-powered vehicles, such as buses, trucks, and motorcycles. The automobile industry is one of the most important industries in the world, affecting not only the economy but also the cultures of the world. It provides jobs for millions of people, generates billions of dollars in worldwide revenues, and provides the basis for a multitude of related service and support industries. Automobiles revolutionized transportation in the 20th century, changing forever the way people live, travel, and do business. The automobile has enabled people to travel and transport goods farther and faster, and has opened wider market areas for business and commerce. The auto industry has also reduced the overall cost of transportation by using methods such as mass production (making several products at once, rather than one at a time), mass marketing (selling products nationally rather than locally), and globalization of production (assembling products with parts made worldwide). From 1886 to 1898, about 300 automobiles were built, but there was no real established industry. A century later, with automakers and auto buyers expanding globally, automaking became the world’s largest manufacturing activity, with nearly 58 million new vehicles built each year worldwide. 5 As a result of easier and faster transportation, the United States and world economies have become dependent on the mobility that automobiles, trucks, and buses provide. This mobility allowed remote populations to interact with one another, which increased commerce. The transportation of goods to consumers and consumers to goods has become an industry in itself. The automobile has also brought related problems, such as air pollution, the emission of greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming, congested traffic, and highway fatalities. Nevertheless, the automobile industry continues to be an important source of employment and transportation for millions of people worldwide. Automobile Racing Automobile Racing is a sport in which drivers race specially designed automobiles over tracks or courses of differing lengths, designs, and constructions. The competition tests the skills of the drivers, the speed capabilities of the vehicles, and the endurance of both. Originally consisting of occasional challenges among wealthy individuals in the United States and continental Europe, automobile racing has evolved into an international year-round professional sport that is one of the most popular spectator attractions in the world. There are three basic types of race courses in automobile racing: (1) the oval track, (2) the road course, and (3) the straight-line course. Oval tracks, which can be dirt, asphalt, or concrete, range in length from 0. 16 to 2. 5 mi 6 (0. 27 to 4 km). Some oval tracks, longer than 1 mi (1. 6 km) and highly banked (angled toward the ground), are called superspeedways. Road courses have either of two forms: courses that are created by temporarily closing city streets, and courses specially designed to duplicate the twists and turns of country roads but used only for racing. Road courses of both types are generally 1. 5 to 4 mi (2. 4 to 6. 4 km) long in the United States, sometimes longer in other countries. Straight-line courses consist of a simple strip of asphalt or concrete used for drag races between two vehicles. Straight-line courses are generally 0. 25 mi (0. 4 km) long, but they can be 0. 125 mi (0. 2 km) long as well. There are five basic components of an automobile racing team: (1) the ownership, (2) the team manager, (3) the driver, (4) the support crew, and (5) the sponsors. The ownership of the car is in charge of the team but usually employs a manager to run operations on a day-to-day basis. The driver is always an independent contractor. Drivers usually compete in a variety of different cars for different owners throughout their careers. The support crew maintains the car before, during, and after races. The driver and support crew work together during races to handle needed repairs, tire changes, and fuel refills (done during brief service breaks known as pit stops). Finally, sponsors, usually corporations, provide money to the racing team in exchange for promotional ties. The most obvious examples of this relationship are company and product logos, which are commonly seen on the outside of vehicles during races. 7 Although there are many categories of automobile racing—and many types and levels of competition within each category—the major forms of the sport differ in the United States and abroad. In most parts of the world, the premier race series are those for Formula One (F1) vehicles and for sports cars. These competitions receive less attention in the United States, where the most important race series are those for Indianapolis (Indy) cars and for stock cars. Some drivers and teams move between American and overseas forms of racing, but this are uncommon. The coordinating committee for automobile racing in the United States is the Automobile Competition Committee for the United States (ACCUS), which serves as the U. S. representative on the Federation International de l’Automobile (FIA; International Automobile. Federation), the worldwide governing body of the sport. ACCUS coordinates activities between FIA and six major sanctioning bodies for automobile racing in the United States—addressing rules, regulations, automotive specifications, safety, and related matters. The eight organizational members of ACCUS are Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART), National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR), Indy Racing League (IRL), Grand American Road Racing Association (GRAND-AM), Professional Sports Car Racing (PSC), the Sports Car Club of America (SCCA), the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA), and the United States Auto Club (USAC). 8 Automobile Business Automobiles have changed and developed in response to consumer wishes, economic conditions, and advancing technology. The first gas-powered vehicles looked like horse buggies with engines mounted underneath because this was the style to which people were accustomed. By 1910, however, features like the front-mounted engine were already established, giving the automobile a look that was all its own. As public demand for cars increased, the vehicles became more stylized. The classic cars of the 1920s and 1930s epitomize the sleek, individually designed luxury cars called the â€Å"classic cars. † During the 1940s and 1950s, automobiles generally became larger until the advent of the â€Å"compact† car, which immediately became a popular alternative. The gasoline crisis is reflected in the fuel-efficient cars made in the 1970s and 1980s. Current designs continue to reflect economy awareness, although many different markets exist. In a turnaround economy like India, small can mean handsome returns. As auto makers Suzuki and Hyundai, focused on the sub-compact segment. It is thanks to buoyant small-car sales by their subsidiaries here that both Hyundai and Suzuki have posted record earnings growth, in the midst of a severe global downturn. It suggests a growth-driver role for the domestic automobile industry, and not merely in terms of volumes and sales. 9 The auto companies and ancillary makers are confident of posting 10 percent rise in business, provided barriers to free movement of goods are removed. Over 80 percent of the players in the automobile industry, having units in north India, said business activities could grow by 10 per cent while 20 per cent of the respondents said business was likely to go beyond 10 percent, a survey conducted by the PHD Chamber of Commerce and Industry said. Reeling under subdued demand for long, the domestic steel industry now hopes that the proposal to reduce excise duty on automobiles in the Interim Budget 2014-15 would spur demand for flat products. â€Å"The proposal to reduce excise duty on automobiles in the current economic environment is a welcome step, however it would have been more meaningful and impactful if the excise duty on steel would have been reduced,† Essar Steel. Leaving direct taxes untouched except for continuing the income tax surcharge on ‘super-rich’ individuals and corporate, the Interim Budget today slashed excise duty on cars and two-wheelers, and capital goods and consumer durables to boost manufacturing and growth. 10 New Technologies of Automobiles Antipollution Strategies Pollution-control laws adopted at the beginning of the 1990s in some of the United States and in Europe called for automobiles that produced better gas mileage with lower emissions. The California Air Resources Board required companies with the largest market shares to begin selling vehicles that were pollution free—in other words, electric. In 1996 General Motors became the first to begin selling an all-electric car, the EV1, to California buyers. The all-electric cars introduced so far have been limited by low range, long recharges, and weak consumer interest. Engines that run on hydrogen have been tested. Hydrogen combustion produces only a trace of harmful emissions, no carbon dioxide, and a water-vapor by-product. However, technical problems related to the gas’s density and flammability remains to be solved. Diesel engines burn fuel more efficiently, and produce fewer pollutants, but they are noisy. Popular in trucks and heavy vehicles, diesel engines are only a small portion of the automobile market. A redesigned, quieter diesel engine introduced by Volkswagen in 1996 may pave the way for more diesels, and less pollution, in passenger cars. 11 Safety Features. Manufacturers continue to build lighter vehicles with improved structural rigidity and ability to protect the driver and passengers during collisions. Bumpers evolved as rails or bars to protect the front and rear of the car’s body from damage in minor collisions. Over the years, bumpers became stylish and, in some cases, not strong enough to survive minor collisions without expensive repairs. Eventually, government regulations required bumpers designed to withstand low-speed collisions with less damage. Some bumpers can withstand 4-km/h (2. 5-mph) collisions with no damage, while others can withstand 8-km/h (5-mph) collisions with no damage. Modern vehicles feature crumple zones, portions of the automobile designed to absorb forces that otherwise would be transmitted to the passenger compartment. Passenger compartments on many vehicles also have reinforced roll bar structures in the roof, in case the vehicle overturns, and protective beams in the doors to help protect passengers from side impacts. Seat belt and upper-body restraints that relax to permit comfort but tighten automatically during an impact are now common. Some car models are equipped with shoulder-restraint belts that slide into position automatically when the car’s doors close. 12. An air bag is a high-speed inflation device hidden in the hub of the steering wheel or in the dash on the passenger’s side. Some automobiles have side-impact air bags, located in doors or seats. At impact, the bag inflates almost instantaneously. The inflated bag creates a cushion between the occupant and the vehicle’s interior. Air bags first appeared in the mid-1970s, available as an optional accessory. Today they are installed on all new passenger cars sold in the United States. Air bags inflate with great force, which occasionally endangers a child or infant passenger. Some newer automobile models are equipped with switches to disable the passenger-side air bags when a child or infant is traveling in the passenger seat. Automakers continue to research ways to make air-bag systems less dangerous for frail and small passengers, yet effective in collisions. Hybrid- Electric Vehicles While some developers searched for additional alternatives, others investigated ways to combine electricity with liquid fuels to produce low-emissions power systems. The hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV) uses both an electric motor or motors and a gasoline or diesel engine that charges the batteries in order to extend the distance that the vehicle can travel without having to recharge the batteries. An HEV at a stoplight typically sits silent, burning no fuel and making no pollution, if the batteries are sufficiently charged. If driven slowly, as in heavy traffic, the vehicle might move only on electric power. 13 Only when more power is demanded for acceleration or to move a heavy load, does the gasoline or diesel engine come into play. Two automobiles with such hybrid engines, the Toyota Prius and the Honda Insight, became available in the late 1990s. The Prius hit automobile showrooms in Japan in 1997, selling 30,000 models in its first two years of production. The Prius became available for sale in North America in 2000. The Honda Insight debuted in North America in late 1999. Both vehicles promised to double the fuel efficiency of conventional gasoline-powered cars while significantly reducing toxic emissions. The Ford Motor Company introduced the first U. S. -made hybrid when it began production for the Ford Escape Hybrid in August 2004. The 2005 model year Escape was also the first hybrid in the sport-utility vehicle (SUV) category. Electric Car. Computers and Navigation Devices Computer control of automobile systems increased dramatically during the 1990s. The central processing unit (CPU) in modern engines manages overall engine performance. Microprocessors regulating other systems share data with the CPU. Computers manage fuel and air mixture ratios, ignition timing, and exhaust-emission levels. They adjust the antilock braking and traction control systems. In many models, computers also control the air conditioning and heating, the sound system, and the information displayed in the vehicle’s dashboard. 14 Expanded use of computer technology, development of stronger and lighter materials, and research on pollution control will produce better, â€Å"smarter† automobiles. In the 1980s the notion that a car would â€Å"talk† to its driver was science fiction; by the 1990s it had become reality. Onboard navigation was one of the new automotive technologies in the 1990s. By using the satellite-aided global positioning system (GPS), a computer in the automobile can pinpoint the vehicle’s location within a few meters. The onboard navigation system uses an electronic compass, digitized maps, and a display screen showing where the vehicle is relative to the destination the driver wants to reach. After being told the destination, the computer locates it and directs the driver to it, offering alternative routes if needed. Some cars now come equipped with GPS locator beacons, enabling a GPS system operator to locate the vehicle, map its location, and if necessary, direct repair or emergency workers to the scene. Cars equipped with computers and cellular telephones can link to the Internet to obtain constantly updated traffic reports, weather information, route directions, and other data. Future built-in computer systems may be used to automatically obtain business information over the Internet and manage personal affairs while the vehicle’s owner is driving. 15. Eco- Friendly Automobile Eight decades after the American auto industry turned away from the electric car in favor of gas-powered vehicles, the giant General Motors Corporation (GM) made a heralded return to the market with the first mass-produced version in the modern era, the EV1. The completely battery-powered $34,000 car, in development by GM since the late 1980s, was delivered amid fanfare to select dealerships in Arizona and southern California on December 5, 1996. Boasting a 137-horsepower engine that can silently accelerate from 0 to 97 km/h (0 to 60 mph) in less than nine seconds, the EV1. (Electric Vehicle 1) is hailed by some observers as an automotive breakthrough. With few moving. parts there is little regular maintenance required and no tailpipe emissions at all. Engineered to be ultralight and extremely aerodynamic to conserve energy, the EV1 is the first electric car to be made entirely from scratch as a battery-powered vehicle since the early years of the century, when as many as one-third of automobiles were electric. Most current electric cars are converted gas-powered vehicles, such as an electricity-powered Ford Ranger introduced in the summer of 1996. The EV1 was first shown to the public as a prototype model called Impact at the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show. Consumer trials followed, as GM worked to overcome the challenges posed by an electric car: the limited travel range before needing a recharge, size and weight restrictions, power-draining auxiliaries 16 (such as heating systems), and the lack of an infrastructure of charging stations—the â€Å"gas stations† of the 21st century, according to electric vehicle backers. But there are also critics of the EV1, who point to the automobile’s relatively high cost and its limited range of 113 to 145 km (70 to 90 m) before its lead-acid batteries must be recharged. The special device that can recharge the EV1 in about three hours costs an extra $2000. (Fully charging from a regular household outlet takes about 15 hours. ) Many of the doubters believe that battery technology is still too limited and that the EV1 risks ultimately hurting the cause of alternative-fuel vehicles. The more advanced nickel-metal hydride battery, which can hold a greater charge than a lead-acid battery, is just now becoming commercially available. Others argue that hybrid cars—combining electric power with internal-combustion technology— hold the best promise for the future of the automobile. Other criticisms of the EV1 include the fact that the sporty vehicle is small, holding just two people. Because electric cars generally do not perform well in cold weather, the EV1 is available only in a few warm-climate cities to start out—Los Angeles and San Diego in California, and Phoenix and Tucson in Arizona. GM plans to make and lease—rather than sell—only a few thousand cars in the initial rollout. Critics of electric cars achieved a victory in March 1996, when California’s Air Resources Board (ARB) pulled back its controversial regulations that would have forced major auto companies to make zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) account for at least 2 percent of their sales in the state starting in 1998. While the 17 ARB backed down on the first restriction, after being heavily lobbied by auto company representatives who argued that the technology was not adequately advanced, it retained the ambitious requirement that 10 percent of all new car fleets be ZEVs by 2003. The air quality of California’s urban areas is among the worst in the United States, and other pollution-plagued regions around the country are beginning to pass similar electric-car measures to address the problem. Beyond the threat of air quality regulations, General Motors is eyeing the electric vehicle as an important new product. They believe that consumers concerned about air pollution levels and rising gasoline prices will be interested in purchasing electric cars. The world’s largest automobile manufacturer, GM was able to devote the resources necessary for such a costly, large-scale project—an estimated $350 million in development costs. The company has made the EV1 such a priority that it created a special division for the vehicle and bestowed the corporate name of General Motors on a car for the first time in history (although it is being marketed and distributed by GM’s Saturn division). The EV1 is only the first of a variety of low- and zero-emission vehicles that are expected from auto manufacturers in the next several years. The Honda EV, powered by nickel-metal hydride batteries, is expected in 1997, and electric cars from automakers such as Ford, Toyota, and Chrysler are planned for release no later than 1998. GM also hopes to expand its line of electric cars in the near future, including an electric Chevrolet pickup truck targeted at commercial vehicle fleets in 1997. 18 Other Improvements During the 1980s and 1990s, manufacturers trimmed 450 kg. (1,000 lb) from the weight of the typical car by making cars smaller. Less weight, coupled with more efficient engines, doubled the gas mileage obtained by the average new car between 1974 and 1995. Further reductions in vehicle size are not practical, so the emphasis has shifted to using lighter materials, such as plastics, aluminum alloys, and carbon composites, in the engine and the rest of the vehicle. Looking ahead, engineers are devising ways to reduce driver errors and poor driving habits. Systems already exist in some locales to prevent intoxicated drivers from starting their vehicles. The technology may be expanded to new vehicles. Anticollision systems with sensors and warning signals are being developed. In some, the car’s brakes automatically slow the vehicle if it is following another vehicle too closely. New infrared sensors or radar systems may warn drivers when another vehicle is in their â€Å"blind spot. † Catalytic converters work only when they are warm, so most of the pollution they emit occurs in the first few minutes of operation. Engineers are working on ways to keep the converters warm for longer periods between drives, or heat the converters more rapidly. 19 Conclusion. Based on the data presented in this paper, the researchers conclude that automobiles transport people in a more comfortable and more efficient manner because it is used in the daily lives of the people as transportation and it is also good for business. The researchers further conclude that the automobile has had a profound impact on the society. It has brought superhighways, paved bridges, motels, vacations, suburbia and economic growth which accompanied them. As a whole, the creation of automobile has played a very important role in the society and in the daily lives of the people because it is one of the key elements of industrial economies and no doubt, it will continue to shape the culture and economy well into the next generations. Recommendation Based on the conclusion, the researchers recommend the following: (1) That government agencies especially Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC) support the production of hybrid- electric vehicles, and eco- friendly automobiles because these have antipollution features. (2) That the government should conduct further research about automobiles because the researchers only comply the library research paper having limited information. (3) That the government agencies should impose rules and regulations on the increasing number of automobiles; and or they should build more highways and bridges in response to this problem. Bibliography Bellis, Mary. (N. D. ). â€Å"Automobile history†. Retrieved on December 20, 2013 at www. about. com. Coffey, Frank. 2003. America on wheels: the first 100 years. United States of America: General Publishing. Crouse, William Harry. Automotive mechanics. United States of America: McGraw- Hill Inc. Grant, Alex. January, 2013. â€Å"Entrepreneur Philippines†. Covering all bases. Page 27. Inolino, Leth. July, 2013. â€Å"Entrepreneur Philippines†. Pushing.